Understanding Criminology: Schools of Thought Summarized

Schools Of Thought in Criminology Summary

Rational Choice

The view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.

Social Process Approach

The view that criminal behaviour is a function of people's interactions with various organisations, institutions, and processes in society.

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Social Structure Approach

This approach concentrates on the social structure and organisation of a community, with the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime.

Classical Criminology

Classical criminology is the theoretical perspective suggesting that:

• People have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviours.

• People commit crimes for reasons of greed or personal need.

• Crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions.

Classic crime theory may be summarised as follows:

• All persons are equal in their rights and should be treated equally before the law.

• People are motivated by pleasure to commit crimes and to avoid pain.

• People are rational, and their behaviour is the product of free will.

• The focus of criminology is the crime (act) and the law.

• Crime is a voluntary act committed by persons exercising deliberate choice.

• Punishment is essential to control or deter criminal behaviour.

• Classical criminology provides the origin of the concept of deterrence.

• Punishment must be proportionate, just, and fair.

• The victims of crime are of little or no importance.

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The Social Milieu School of Thought

Two approaches may be distinguished in this school:

• The Social Structure Approach

• The Social Process Approach

The structural approach focuses on the social structure and organisation of a community. It also examines economic systems, social disparities, family dysfunction, social disorganisation, and the geographical distribution of crime.

Social structure theories reflect a fundamental faith in the social system but seek to identify structural flaws that contribute to crime. The process approach addresses variations in crime rates across structural conditions. These approaches are sometimes called psychosocial theories.

This school of thought may be summarised as follows:

• It is based on the juridical conception of crime.

• The main focus is on the criminal's social environment.

• It assumes that improved social conditions will prevent crime.

• The criminal and the victim are largely ignored.

• There is no concern with punishment or rehabilitation.

The emphasis is on external factors as causes of crime, and criminals are seen as victims of social conditions over which they have little control. This school became part of positivist criminology due to its similar study methods.

Positivist Criminology

Positivism is the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behaviour is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces. The positivist or Italian school of thought is regarded as the second great movement in the study of crime.

Positivism accepts the legal/juridical concept of crime but rejects free will and rational choice, focusing on determinism.

Positivist criminology may be summarised as follows:

• The emphasis is on the criminal, not on the crime.

• Human behaviour is determined by biological, psychological, and socioeconomic factors over which individuals have little control.

• Crime and victimisation may be prevented by medical and psychological treatment and the improvement of poor socioeconomic conditions.

• The purpose of sanctions (punishment) is not to punish but to provide treatment and reform.

• Positivist criminology has also been called traditional, mainstream, or establishment criminology, serving as "science for government."

Critical Criminology (Conflict or Radical Theory)

Turk – The view that crime is a product of the capitalist system (Marxist criminology). Critical criminology is the third movement in the scientific development of criminology, focusing on the political and economic structures of discrimination and exploitation as causes of crime and why some actions are classified as crimes while others are not.

The critical school of thought may be summarised as follows:

• It rejects the juridical crime concept and traditional causes of crime, seeing crime as a rational (deliberate) choice.

• The state is selective and biased, focusing on criminalising acts usually committed by powerless people.

• Economic and political discrimination are seen as the causes of crime.

• Lawbreakers are the real victims as they are oppressed by the state.

• Crime could be prevented by empowering people (e.g., community policing, community courts), repealing unjust laws, and promoting diversion rather than imprisonment.

Critical criminology is also known as:

• Liberal criminology

• Conflict criminology

• Radical criminology

• Marxist or socialist criminology

Feminist Criminology

Feminist theory suggests that the traditionally lower crime rate for women could be explained by their "second-class" economic and social position. As women's social roles changed and their lifestyles became more like those of men, their crime rates were expected to converge.

The feminist school of thought is the fourth great movement in criminology. It focuses on:

• Discrimination against women in society.

• The stereotyping of female criminals as "sick" by both classic and positivist criminology.

• The expectation that victims should prevent crimes against themselves.

The feminist school of thought may be summarised as follows:

• Feminist criminologists argue that neither positivist nor critical criminology explains the low crime rate among women.

• They take both the juridical and non-juridical concepts of crime as their foundation.

• They focus mainly on discrimination against women in the criminal justice system.

• They highlight hidden crimes against women, such as domestic violence and sexual crimes.

• They consider it unjust to expect victims to protect themselves against crime.

Postmodern Criminology

Postmodernism focuses on the use of language by those in power to define crime based on their own values and biases. This approach moves away from theories focused on social class or culture and places more emphasis on integrated perspectives that accept both juridical and non-juridical crime concepts.

Postmodern criminology considers various social factors contributing to crime, including:

• Economic constraints and income inequality.

• Low educational qualifications.

• A high number of firearms in circulation.

• Rapid urbanisation without necessary infrastructure (housing, schools, healthcare).

• An outgoing lifestyle.

• A multicultural population.

• High alcohol and drug abuse rates.

• High unemployment rates.

• A large young population.

• Repeated victimisation, particularly among young people in urban areas.

Postmodern criminology may be summarised as follows:

• It accepts both juridical and non-juridical crime concepts.

• It is not bound to any particular school of thought.

• It questions narrow definitions of conventional concepts such as "norms," "values," "culture," "social constraint," and "anomy," advocating their deconstruction.

• It rejects theories based on social class or culture.

• It adopts an integrated approach to explain and prevent crime.

• It focuses on universal factors that contribute to crime.

• Victims' rights and needs are a high priority.

• It emphasises transnational and community-based policing, restorative justice, and community-based punishments.

Introduction to Criminology Summary Table

	CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY	POSITIVIST CRIMINOLOGY	NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL	CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY	FEMINIST CRIMINOLOGY
WHO	Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham	Italian doctor Cesare Lombroso	Developed overtime	Does Not have a single founder	Does not have a single founder
WHEN	Late 18th century	19th century	Late 18th early 19th century	Late 1960’s and early 1970’s	Late 1960s into 1970s
EMPHASIS	On crime	On the criminal	On crime and criminal	On economic and political discrimination	On sex and gender and class inequality
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR	Influenced by hedonism and free will	Influenced by biological, psychological and socio-economic factors.	Challenges the classical position of absolute free will	Influenced by class, race and gender	Influenced by gender norms, power dynamics, patriarchy, and societal inequalities
CRIME DETERRENT	Punishment	Individualised treatment and rehabilitation	Crime control model: subjugation of crime through robust law enforcement, strict enforcement off the law and harsh punishments. The due process model: it is better to let several criminals go than to falsely imprison an innocent person.	That a legitimate response to crime must be built upon a strategy of social empowerment.	By promoting gender equality, challenging patriarchal norms, and addressing social injustices.
LIMITATIONS	Ignores the complexities of human behaviour.	Determinism Labelling Ethical concerns Overemphasise on prediction Neglect of structural	Overemphasis on individual factors Lack of empirical evidence Ignores systemic factors stigmatisation	Overlooking the reality of crime.	Cannot explain the causes of inequality and the division of labour between men and women.
		factors Cultural bias

Continuation...

	SOCIAL MILIEU SCHOOL OF THOUGHT	POST-MODERN CRIMINOLOGY	CRIMINOLOGY IN AFRICA	CRIMINOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA
WHO	Tarde, Guerry and Quentelet	Does not have a single founder	Does not have a single founder	Does not have a single founder
WHEN	Not specified	Late 1980s	Mid 20th century	20th century (sources might differ)
EMPHASIS	On the intricate interplay between individuals and their social surroundings in shaping behaviour and development.	Social construction of reality, power and knowledge, multiplicity of truths, complexity and uncertainty intersectionality	Development of africa Protection of the community	On social, economic and historical roots Impact on individuals and communities
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR	Influenced by culture, social institutions, socialisation, peer influence, economic factors.	Influenced by norms, values, culture, social constraint and anomy.	Influenced by old colonial powers(capitalisms)	Influenced by apartheid, socio-economic disparities, political, cultural diversity
CRIME DETERRENT	Social support systems Education and employment opportunities Community programs Restorative justice practices Addressing social inequality	By addressing underlying issues through social policies, community engagement, and empowerment initiatives. Transnational and community-based policing, restorative justice and community-based punishments.	Compulsory education for all The eradication of poverty and unemployment The cleaning up of slums The restoration of family values and norms.	Effective law enforcement strategies Community policing initiatives Crime prevention programs Addressing underlying socio-economic factors
LIMITATIONS	Focus excessively on external social factors while overlooking individual agency and psychological factors that may also contribute to behaviour.	Lack of unified framework Potential for relativism Critique of grand narratives	Regional diversity Colonial legacy Data availability Resource constraints	Resource constraints Inequality Corruption Violence
		Practical application challenges	Western bias Interdisciplinary approach	Legacy of apartheid Capacity issues Complex legal landscape